Similarly, evidence suggests that many people who could benefit from medications for opioid use disorders, which promote abstinence from opioids (Schuckit, 2016), do not receive them. One study demonstrated that less than 5% of adolescents and 23% of adults received medication in the year prior to experiencing a non-fatal overdose, and only 8% of adolescents and 29% of adults received medication in the year after (Chatterjee et al., 2019). Additionally, few people with SUDs who are incarcerated receive treatment, contributing to high rates of re-engagement in substance use upon release (Galea & Vlahov, 2002; Wakeman & Rich, 2018). All of the included articles contained themes related to either men or womenexperiencing heightened drug use-related stigma, though none referenced themesrelated to transgender participants’ experiences with drug use stigma. Nearlyall of these articles (34, 97%) highlighted experiences of WWUD with heightened druguse-related stigma [41–56,58–75].

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Reasons for initiation included coping with the stigma of not meeting perceived social expectations, such as an idealized weight, and self-medicating to address stress or depression. The period during the drug use was the most difficult time in which the women tried to avoid stigma by concealing their drug use. Yet they said that they felt normal using drugs as they saw an increase in their productivity and self-esteem. The after stage revealed more difficulty for these women as they faced criticism on multiple levels. They were still criticized for having a “former user” label, and some women were not able to maintain the same level of productivity they showed when using meth.

Differences in Addiction Treatment

Many women are very limited in resources even though society claims that there are a multitude of services available to them. For example, women who live in areas with no public transportation cannot get to needed services, and women who do not have a phone cannot make appointments or receive a call back when they leave messages (Boeri, 2013; Luck et al., 2004). Therefore, even though programs exist, it is also important to consider access to them for disadvantaged women (Sered, 2014; Woodall & Boeri, 2013). The negative perception of recovering or “former drug users” is another reason that these women do not go to these programs. Basic social and behavioral science research can continue to clarify the experiences and impacts of stigma manifestations among people with SUDs over time (Corrigan et al., 2017).

Unfortunately, some authors report a lack of adequate funding to meet the indicated needs [21,36,39]. Although Katy was still using drugs, concealing it and acting “normal” helped her avoid the stigma that would come from being an exposed drug user. Like Katy, many women started drugs to avoid feeling stigmatized, but they were now forced to hide their drug use to avoid even greater stigma. Their stories reveal how drugs seemed to help them to not only feel better but also be more productive. Like Chloe and Linda, many of the women began to use drug as self-medication to make them feel better. Some had been separated from their significant others, but they revealed different reasons to use drugs to address their separation.

1. Between 1999 and 2020, more than 800,000 Americans died from drug overdoses, and escalating rates of drug addiction have contributed to recent decreases in U.S. life expectancy.
2. Religious organizations can provide space for social clubs and activities for people in the community other than their own congregations or members.
3. Although many women initiate the use of drugs as a way to self-medicate and address social pressures, they are stigmatized by society for using drugs, and women who are mothers face even greater stigmatization (Lende, Leonard, Sterk, & Elifson, 2007; Radcliffe, 2011; Roberts, 1991).
4. The use of validated druguse-related stigma measures and the tailoring of stigma scales to WWUD are neededto understand the role of stigma in heightening the disproportionate harmsexperienced by WWUD.
5. Between 1999 and 2010, the overdose fatality rate among women grew 400 percent compared to 237 percent for men.

Theoretical sampling, used in grounded theory, involved the collection of data based on theory that emerged from the data while it was collected, designed “to maximize opportunities to discover variations among concepts and to densify categories in terms of their properties and dimensions” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 201). Theoretical sampling was used to insure a diversity of participant experiences, as well as to focus on recruitment of specific kinds of users that emerged from ongoing analysis of the data. Psychologists can leverage acceptance and mindfulness approaches to address internalized stigma among people with SUDs. As noted above, people with SUDs with greater internalized stigma and shame experience worse treatment and recovery-related outcomes. Luoma and colleagues have developed and tested a group-based intervention for people with SUDs targeting shame that is based on the principles of acceptance and commitment therapy (Luoma et al., 2012). This approach encourages individuals to notice and experience, rather than suppress and avoid, feelings of shame.

In addition to these barriers, women experience barriers to treatment that are related to societal stigma. Where they seek treatment can be influenced by stigma as well as who they seek help from, whether it’s a health professional, self-help group or a religious source. For example, although smoking cigarettes is legal, women may be labeled as trashy and lacking morals if they smoke in public while men may be viewed as attractive and more masculine. Before World War II, women who had an alcohol addiction were perceived as closet drinkers, homeless or living with severe mental illnesses. These two women considered the treatment services they attended were not very helpful, and they did not attain a drug-free life after they left the treatment services. People who are considered different from “normal” are stigmatized, perceived as deviant, and often marginalized.

Medical

Of course, for these interventions to be implemented, adequate preparation of medical personnel is necessary, especially therapists’ high cultural competence, empathy, unconditional positive regard, and authenticity (Rogers’ triad) [25]. Referring to the treatment services they experienced, the women explained the different aspects that could be improved. Religion offered informal social control by providing a social group outside the drug using network, but religious belief was not for all women. The most important source of social control mentioned by the women was not treatment but instead the social environment where they lived and the social networks they had access to before, during and after using drugs.

To further assess for this source of bias, and to aid in the interpretationof results, study quality scores were presented for each included study. Many publications indicated that stigma toward women suffering from drug addiction is the most how to flush alcohol out of your system for urine test frequently reported problem. Social beliefs expect women to be home caretakers, raise children, and be more family-oriented than men.

One article (3%), however,illustrated that there may be contexts in which MWUD experience greater druguse-related stigma (described below) [57]. The overarching analytical theme for thissynthesis explored how gender serves to shape manifestations of drug use-relatedstigma. Five descriptive themes further emerged; (1) WWUD’s experiences of“double” stigma, (2) societal expectations of womanhood and theirimpact on drug use-related stigma, (3) stereotypes of promiscuity for WWUD, (4) druguse-related stigma for WWUD in healthcare settings, and (5) gender-based violence forWWUD (See Figure 3). These descriptive themescapture unique facets of the intersection of gender and drug use-related stigma, butthese themes were not mutually exclusive and there were instances in which theyoverlapped and intersected (See Tables 3 and​and44).

Many researchers believe that psychological distress and low self-esteem influence the use of psychoactive substances sun rocks weed [69]. Women who use these substances, in addition to temporarily raising their self-esteem, “enter” their social reality in which they feel good. By using drugs, they find a sense of self-esteem, strive to perform tasks, and achieve goals they believe society sets for them.

Similarly, White (2002) discusses how social stigma toward alcohol and other drug addiction may be an obstacle to resolve problems or to even come up with a strategy to solve the issue of addiction. White (2002) further identifies several myths surrounding stigma and how it is important to understand the difference between stereotypes and facts. For example, women and men sometimes use drugs for different reasons and respond to them differently. A substance use disorder occurs when a person continues to use drugs or alcohol even after experiencing negative consequences. In comparison to other areas of stigma research, SUD stigma is arguably understudied (Corrigan et al., 2017). More research is needed to describe the processes whereby stigma manifestations impact mediating mechanisms and substance use outcomes to build a stronger understanding of how stigma impacts substance use.

The content is solely the responsibility of the author and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. ‘For example, almost all respondents suggested thatHDCs [historically disadvantaged communities] believe “these are goodwomen gone bad” For female “addicts”, these discoursesare defined against commonly-held discourses about what it means to be a“good woman.”’ (Myers, 2009, South Africa, pg. 3, [41]). The emotions that Linda referred to were the negative views the women perceived from others, but when they used meth, the emotions were subsided, ultimately increasing their self-esteem. The study was approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board and received a “certificate of confidentiality” from a federal agency to protect the study data. The audio-recorded interviews were semi-structured and open-ended so that participants could also lead the conversation into new areas of interest.

The social environment refers to the living situations of the women while trying to recover from drug use, which included jail and drug courts (formal social control), and their own neighborhoods and social networks (informal social control). Copes, Hochstetler and Williams (2008) explore the concept of identities within the drug user communities. According to these authors, social identity is referred to as a multivalent process where individuals identify themselves in terms of being similar to some people and different to others.

Also, according to Akré et al. (2021), addressing the social needs (such as food, clothing, safety, and housing) of women who use drugs can support better access to healthcare services. Therefore, these are further important indications for policymakers responsible for accessing and developing medical and social care for women suffering from substance abuse [35]. For many women, losing custody of their children is a significant threat and a barrier to treatment, although, for a significant proportion of participants, it is sometimes a motivation to seek help. In addition, women report social stigma as a barrier to treatment in personal and professional contexts [46]. Women who seek treatment pointed to the limitations of gender-sensitive treatment programs kaiser drug treatment that may not consider their increased domestic responsibilities.